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Introduction

Australia is the second world’s largest primary producer of lead after China. The three main lead smelter companies are located in Port Pirie, Broken Hill, and Mount Isa (Sullivan & Green, 2016). In Mount Isa, the city population was 32, 588 according to the Australian National Census 2016 where children aged 0 - 14 years made up 23.1% of the population. Munksgaard, Taylor and Mackay (2010) note that the environmental lead level and blood lead concentration in children at Mount Isa is substantially elevated raising concern on the public health risk. The lead problem has increased over time due to the reluctance of stakeholders (Xstrata Mount Isa Mines Ltd, operator of Mount Isa Mines (MIM), and Queensland environmental and health authorities) to acknowledge and respond effectively to the main cause of environmental lead which is mining and smelting activity.

The City of Mount Isa is adjacent to Mount Isa Mines which is a major producer of lead, zinc and copper as well as Australian largest emitter of sulphur dioxide, lead and harmful metals. Although lead is harmful to the whole population, its impact on children is adverse given that it stunts growth and lead to learning disabilities (Geier, Kern, & Geier, 2017). Additionally, blood lead level (BLL) above 10 μg/dL show lifelong negative health, intellectual and sociobehavioural effects. Apparently, even in BLL between 5 and 10 μg/dL, and even at levels as low as 2 μg/dL have shown an adverse effect on children including neurocognitive impairments. Lead exposure places children on an abnormal developmental trajectory that reduces social and educational achievement and increase the possibility of unmet life potential. The lead pollution inMount Isa region has widely contaminated the soil and airborne dust due to the on-going mining and smelting activities.